مروری بر پشه‌های دارای اهمیت همه‌گیری در مراکش: توزیع جغرافیایی، زیست‌بوم‌شناسی و خطرات بهداشت عمومی

Introduction

Vector-borne diseases have a devastating impact on animal and human health. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), vector-borne diseases account for more than 17% of all infectious diseases and cause more than one million human deaths per year (Fournet et al., 2018). These diseases are transmitted between humans or from animals to humans via a competent vector organism. The most common vectors are bloodsucking arthropods (mosquitoes, ticks, flies, etc.) that ingest pathogens (viruses, parasites, etc.) during a blood meal from an infected host and then transmit them to a new host with a subsequent blood meal (Mayer et al., 2017).

In recent years, vector-borne diseases, particularly those caused by mosquito-borne arboviruses, have experienced a worrying resurgence. Since their discovery, the number of arboviruses has continued to increase and expand geographically (Gould et al., 2017). Current data reports more than a hundred different types of mosquito-borne viruses are involved in human pathologies such as chikungunya (CHIKV), dengue (DENV), Zika (ZIKV), Rift Valley fever (RVFV), and West Nile virus (WNV) (Braack et al., 2018).The frequency and intensity of arbovirus outbreaks are expected to increase throughout the 21^st century due to globalization, human population growth, climate change, and the availability and expansion of mosquito vectors (Flores & O'Neill, 2018). It is estimated that more than 82% of the world's population already lives in areas at risk of at least one arbovirus disease, with more than half at risk of two or more (Golding et al., 2015). The risk of infection is particularly high in areas where Aedes and Culex mosquitoes proliferate due to the presence of favorable habitats and close contact with humans (Liang et al., 2015). Morocco's mosquito inventory includes 43 species belonging to seven genera and 18 subgenera. The most represented genera are Aedes and Culex (12 species), followed by the genera Anopheles (nine species) and Culiseta (5 species). The genera Coquillettidia and Uranotaenia are represented by only two species and the genus Orthopodomyia by only one species (Trari, 2017). Of these 43 species, six are implicated as the main vectors of many arboviruses: Ae. aegypti (Linnaeus, 1762), Ae. albopictus (Skuse, 1895), Ae. vexans (Meigen, 1830), Ae. caspius (Pallas, 1771), Ae. detritus (Haliday, 1833), and Cx. pipiens (Linnaeus, 1758). With increasing globalization and the landscape of emerging pathogens constantly changing, knowledge of potential vector species, their current geographic distribution, and their involvement in arbovirus transmission is essential for a thorough understanding of human health risk and for preparation for future threats.

Important mosquito-borne arboviruses detected in Morocco

Dengue virus

(DENV; Family: Flaviviridae, genus: Flavivirus) is an arbovirus ubiquitous in the tropics that is vectored to humans through the bites of infected female mosquitoes, mainly Ae. aegypti (Apodaca-Medina et al., 2018). Other species of the genus Aedes may also act as vectors, such as Ae. albopictus, Ae. vittatus (Bigot, 1861), Ae. polynesiensis (Marks, 1951), Ae. scutellaris (Walker, 1859), and Ae. japonicus (Theobald, 1901) (Mavale et al., 1992; Carrington & Simmons, 2014; Brustolin et al., 2018). Dengue virus is transmitted both in urban areas (human transmission cycle) and in forest/rural areas (sylvatic transmission cycle). These two cycles of transmission are different from an ecological and Evolutionutionary point of view. In urban areas, transmission occurs between humans, while in forested areas, transmission occurs between non-human primates with occasional spillovers into human populations (Carrington & Simmons, 2014).

The global incidence of dengue and serious clinical presentations have increased significantly over the past five decades. Approximately 50 to 200 million infections, 500,000 episodes with serious complications, and more than 20,000 dengue-related deaths occur each year (Guo et al., 2017). Moreover, this disease has become endemic in more than 100 countries in Africa, the Americas, Eastern Mediterranean, Southeast Asia, and Western Pacific. It is estimated that up to 3.6 billion people now live in areas where dengue virus can be transmitted (Brady et al., 2012). In Morocco, two imported cases of dengue fever were reported in 2017 in two patients, both travelling from the Ivory Coast, a Moroccan and an Ivorian who were staying in Abidjan during a 2017 outbreak (Bajjou et al., 2018). A field-collected strain of Ae. albopictus from Morocco in 2016 was experimentally infected with dengue DENV and showed moderate transmission potential, with virus detected in saliva at day 14 post-infection. These results indicate that local DENV transmission by invasive Ae. albopictus in Morocco is a plausible risk (Amraoui et al., 2019).

Chikungunya

(CHIKV; Family: Togaviridae, genus: Alphavirus) is an arbovirus that causes debilitating arthritis and arthralgia in infected humans (Vu et al., 2017). CHIKV has caused explosive epidemics across multiple continents, including major outbreaks in the Indian Ocean (2005-2006), India (2006), and the Caribbean, demonstrating its rapid global expansion from African origins (Henry et al., 2017). Similar to dengue, chikungunya virus is maintained in a sylvatic transmission cycle that occurs between various forest Aedes mosquitoes (Ae. taylori (Edwards, 1936), Ae. luteocephalus (Newstead, 1907), Ae. africanus (Theobald, 1901) and Ae. neoafricanus (Cornet, Valade & Dieng, 1978)) and animal reservoirs, with non-human primates being the main reservoir host (Coffey et al., 2014). Urban transmission is primarily mediated by Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus mosquitoes and occurs in a human-mosquito-to-human transmission cycle. While enzootic forest transmission of CHIKV is well-established in Africa, outbreaks in Asia have been primarily attributed to urban transmission (Weaver et al., 2020). In Morocco, only one imported case of chikungunya was reported in 2017. The case was a 37-year-old woman who returned to Morocco after 18 months in Dhaka Bangladesh where she acquired the infection (Bajjou et al., 2017). The same Moroccan field-collected Ae. albopictus strain (2016), that showed moderate DENV transmission capacity, demonstrated high competence for CHIKV, with infectious virus detected in saliva as early as 3 days post-infection (Amraoui et al., 2019).

Rift Valley Fever virus

(RVFV; Family: Phenuiviridae, genus: Phlebovirus) is a long-recognized disease of humans and domesticated livestock in sub-Saharan Africa but has crossed several barriers including Arabian Peninsula, and some Indian Ocean Islands (Sumaye et al., 2019; Ngoshe et al., 2020). Humans and livestock (cattle, sheep, goats, and camels) are primarily exposed to the virus through the bite of infected mosquitoes, particularly those from the genera Aedes and Culex (Tantely et al., 2015). The virus still circulates at common borders with Mauritania (southern Morocco) where multiple outbreaks occurred in 1987, 1993, 2003, 2010, and 2012, resulting in numerous animal deaths as well as human fatalities (Caminade et al., 2014). The Moroccan Veterinary Services conducted a serological study on 100 camels in 2010, and 50 of them tested positive for RVF-specific antibodies by competitive ELISA, which was later verified by virus-neutralization (El-Harrak et al., 2011).

West Nile virus

(WNV; Family: Flaviviridae, genus: Flavivirus) was initially identified in 1937 in the West Nile district of Northern Uganda from a febrile patient (Smithburn et al., 1940). Since then, the virus has been recorded in over 83 countries throughout the world, making it one of the most widely spread arboviruses (Chancey et al., 2015; Al-Jabi, 2017). A cycle of transmission between mosquitoes and birds maintains the virus in nature, whereas people and horses have been accidently infected, but are considered dead-end hosts since they do not contribute significantly to its illness spread. The main amplifying hosts and vectors that significantly contribute to the re-emergence and worldwide spread of WNV are birds and mosquitoes (Culex and Aedes) (Komar et al., 2003; Levine et al., 2017; Soltész et al., 2017; Rochlin et al., 2019). Morocco has experienced multiple outbreaks of WNV. The first one was reported in 1996 in Benslimane region and resulted in the death of 42 horses (among 94 equine confirmed cases) and one-person (Benjelloun et al., 2017). In the second incident, WNV spread among horses (5 deaths out of 9 equine cases) in September and October of 2003 in three locations: Mograne, Ameur Seflia, and Ouled Slama (Schuffenecker et al., 2005). The virus returned to the central and northwest regions (Mohammedia, Casablanca, Benslimane, and Khemisset) in 2010 and resulted in the death of eight horses and 17 confirmed cases (out of 111 suspected cases) (Benjelloun et al., 2016). Wild birds serosurvey (Figuerola et al., 2009), WNV-specific antibodies detection in camels and humans (El-Harrak et al., 2011; El Rhaffouli et al., 2012; Harrak et al., 2016), laboratory susceptibility and natural infection of Cx. pipiens (Amraoui et al., 2012a; Assaid et al., 2020), all provided evidence that WNV was widely circulating in Morocco.

Important mosquitoes found in Morocco

Aedes aegypti

Aedes aegypti (Linnaeus, 1762) is commonly referred to as the yellow fever mosquito (Reinert et al., 2004). Native to sub-Saharan Africa, its ancestral form was a sylvatic zoophilic mosquito called Ae. aegypti formosus which exclusively bit animals and laid eggs in tree holes (Powell & Tabachnick, 2013). Aedes aegypti, the domestic form, was introduced into the new world from Africa during the seventeenth century by ships and the slave trade (Brown et al., 2014). Since then, the species has spread globally. Currently, it is distributed in the tropical and subtropical regions of Africa and South America, the southeastern United States, the Middle East, Southeast Asia, the Pacific Islands, India, and northern Australia (Medlock et al., 2015).

Until the first half of the 20th century, Ae. aegypti was previously established in southern Europe and the Mediterranean basin (Schaffner & Mathis, 2014). It had been reported in Azerbaijan, Cyprus, France, Georgia, Greece, Italy, Malta, Portugal, southern Russia, Sardinia, Spain, Turkey, Algeria, Egypt, Libya, and Morocco (Schaffner & Mathis, 2014; Medlock et al., 2015). More than 50 years later and for unknown reasons, it has disappeared from most of these countries and was even presumed probably extinct (Kotsakiozi et al., 2018). Aedes aegypti was reintroduced in 2001 in the Sochi region of Russia and then in 2005 on the Portuguese island of Madeira (Iunicheva Iu et al., 2008; Ibañez-Justicia et al., 2017; Abozeid et al., 2018; Akıner et al., 2019; Seixas et al., 2019). In Morocco, Ae. aegypti was once very common throughout the Moroccan coastline (Fig. 1), especially in the cities of Rabat and Casablanca (Vialatte, 1923). This species has also been found in Tangier (Charrier, 1924), Salé, and Marrakech (Gaud, 1953). The last available notification documenting its presence in Morocco was in 1997, when its larvae were collected in the Sebkha Chemaia, central Morocco (Vialatte, 1923; Charrier, 1924; Gaud, 1953; Handaq, 1998).

Larval habitats

Unlike its ancestral form that laid eggs in tree holes, Ae. aegypti preferentially deposits its eggs in artificial larval habitats of anthropogenic origin. Most often, females do not lay their entire batch of eggs in one shot and one place, but rather choose to lay a few eggs in several separate nests (skip-oviposition), which ensures greater dispersion of offspring and reduces competition (Oliva et al., 2014; Ferede et al., 2018). The larval habitats are of various kinds: used tires, buckets, small plastic containers, barrels, flower pots, saucepans, jars, and even abandoned school cabinets (Ferede et al., 2018). This diversity of larval sites used is a testament to its great adaptability to different environmental conditions.

Trophic behavior

Aedes aegypti mosquitoes prefer mammalian hosts and will preferentially feed on humans, even in the presence of alternative hosts (Jansen & Beebe, 2010; Cebrián-Camisón et al., 2020). It prefers to enter human dwellings that offer opportunities for searching a potential target. Females appear to bite during day and night, with peak activity at dawn and dusk in warm regions (Captain-Esoah et al., 2020).

Medical importance

Aedes aegypti is the main vector of yellow fever virus (YFV), DENV, CHIKV, Mayaro (MAYV), Uganda S (UGSV), and ZIKV (JPT, 1958; Lourenco-de-Oliveira et al., 2002; Li et al., 2012; Ferreira-de-Brito et al., 2016; Guerbois et al., 2016; Richard et al., 2016; Costa-da-Silva et al., 2017; Apodaca-Medina et al., 2018; Cevallos et al., 2018; da Costa et al., 2018; Magalhaes et al., 2018; Main et al., 2018; Kantor et al., 2019).

Aedes albopictus

Aedes albopictus (Skuse, 1895) is commonly referred to as the Asian tiger mosquito (Reinert et al., 2004; Faraji & Unlu, 2016). It has experienced recently a dramatic global expansion facilitated by human activities, particularly the international trade in used tires and bamboo (Reiter, 1998; Hofhuis et al., 2009; Bennett et al., 2019). This, combined with the passive transport of eggs supporting desiccation via public and private transport, has resulted in its wide global distribution. It is now ranked among the 100 most important invasive species in the world (Amraoui et al., 2019).

Fig. 1. Distribution of Ae. aegypti in Morocco

Endowed with high plasticity allowing it to adapt to various ecological conditions, this species has established itself in more than 100 countries on five continents. It has been reported so far in 25 different countries in Europe, the Middle East (Azari-Hamidian et al., 2024), the Arabian Peninsula (Saudi Arabia, Yemen), South America, Central America, North America, Australia, on many islands in the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and in Africa (Cameroon, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Madagascar, Nigeria, South Africa) (Medlock et al., 2015). In Maghreb countries, this mosquito has been reported in Algeria (2010-2018), Tunisia (2018), and Morocco in Rabat in 2016 (Izri et al., 2011; Benallal et al., 2016; Bennouna et al., 2017; Bouattour et al., 2019). Aedes albopictus is believed to be underestimated in Morocco (Fig. 2) because it has a much larger distribution in the country, especially in the urban areas of the Orient and North, where the trade in used tires imported from abroad has been thriving in recent years.

Larval habitats

Aedes albopictus tends to proliferate in small patches of water, often artificial and surrounded by vegetation. It can thrive in cemetery flower pots, bird baths, buckets, jars, cement tanks, cans, and discarded bottles, etc (Unlu et al., 2013). However, used tires remain the most frequently colonized type of sites, as they are often stored outdoors and effectively collect and retain rainwater for a long time (Abílio et al., 2018; Stefopoulou et al., 2018).

Trophic behavior

Although Ae. albopictus preferentially bites mammals (including humans), females can also feed on most groups of vertebrates, both cold-blooded and warm-blooded, including reptiles, birds, and amphibians (Kamgang et al., 2012; Faraji et al., 2014; Muhammad et al., 2020).

Medical importance

Aedes albopictus is the world's most important vector of arboviruses. It has been found capable of transmitting up to 39 viruses: Arumowot (AMTV), Bujaru (BUJV), Bussuquara (BSQV), Cache Vallée (CVV), Chandipura (CHPV), Chilibre (CHIV), Eastern Equine Encephalomyelitis (EEEV), Getah (GETV), Icoaraci (ICOV), Ilheus (ILHV), Itaporanga (ITPV), Jamestown Canyon (JCV), Japanese Encephalitis (JEV), Karimabad (KARV), Keystone (KEYV), Kokobera (KOKV), Kunjin (KUNV), La Crosse (LACV), Mayaro (MAYV), Oropuche (OROV), Orungo (ORUV), Pacui (PACV), Potosi (POTV), Rift Valley Fever Virus (RVFV), Ross River (RRV), Salehabad (SALV), San Angelo (SA), St. Louis Encephalitis (SLEV), Tensaw (TENV), Trivittatus (TVTV), UGSV, Urucuri (URUV), Usutu (USUV), Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis (VEEV), WNV, YFV, DENV, CHIKV, and ZIKV (Pereira-Dos-Santos et al., 2020).

A study tested its vector competence by infecting a local strain with DENV, CHIKV, ZIKVand YFV, revealing high transmission potential for CHIKV and lower but significant transmission for DENV, ZIKV, and YFV. Virus detection in mosquito saliva occurred as early as day 3 (CHIKV), day 14 (DENV, YFV), and day 21 (ZIKV) post-infection. These findings indicate a high risk of local arbovirus transmission by Ae. albopictus in Morocco (Amraoui et al., 2019).

Aedes vexans

Aedes vexans (Meigen, 1830), or the inland floodwater mosquito, is widely distributed throughout the Holarctic region, Eastern Europe, North America, North Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, parts of East Asia as well as the Australasian and Oceanic Islands. (Birnberg et al., 2019; Parry et al., 2020). In Morocco, the oldest citation of this species was by Gaud in 1947 in El-Khémisset and Sidi Allal Tazi (Gaud, 1947). The species was subsequently reported on the Casablanca coast (88), el Jadida, Zemamra, and Chemaia. Then in Fez and finally in Meknes (Fig. 3) (Gaud, 1947; Metge, 1986; Handaq, 1998; El Ouali Lalami A., 2010; Handaq & Blenzar, 2017).

Larval habitats

This species thrives mainly in floodplains, rivers, and lakes. Like most floodwater mosquitoes, Ae. vexans lay their dessication-resistant eggs near temporary or semi-permanent ponds predisposed to seasonal flooding. Their diapause eggs survive long periods of drought and hatch massively after flood episodes (Becker et al., 2020).

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Fig. 2. Distribution of Ae. albopictus in Morocco

Fig. 3. Distribution of Ae. vexans in Morocco

Trophic behavior

Females are aggressive with low host specificity in mammals and humans, which is relevant for the potential transmission of pathogens. In Europe, female bite rates are so high that staying outdoors becomes virtually impossible, especially during the evening hours (Becker & Lüthy, 2017).

Medical importance

In North America and Europe, several arboviruses, such as WNV, Snowshoe hare virus (SSHV), Jamestown Canyon virus (JCV) (Gligic & Adamovic, 1976; Medlock et al., 2017; Sang et al., 2017), Batai virus (BATV) (Elizondo-Quiroga et al., 2018; Scheuch et al., 2018; Karliuk et al., 2021) were isolated from Ae. vexans. In Africa, it is considered one of the main vectors of the RVFV (Miller et al., 2002; Ndiaye et al., 2016; Sang et al., 2017).

Aedes caspius

Aedes caspius (Pallas, 1771) is a species with a very wide Palearctic distribution; extending from Europe to Central Asia. It is also well-established in Russia and the Middle East(Robert et al., 2019; ECDC, 2020) In the European continent, its presence generates mainly nuisance especially around the Mediterranean along the coast. It has been reported in Italy (Veronesi et al., 2012), France (Balenghien et al., 2008; Carron et al., 2008), Belgium (Boukraa et al., 2015), Spain (Gutierrez-Lopez et al., 2019), etc. In Morocco, it occurs both in coastal wetlands and in the interior of the country (Fig. 4) (Handaq, 1998; Handaq & Blenzar, 2017).

Larval habitats

The female of Ae. caspius lays eggs on moist soil, at the base of clumps of vegetation, the watering of which causes the eggs to hatch. Larvae develop in most cases in brackish water but can also be found in freshwater (Bellini et al., 1997).

Fig. 4. Distribution of Ae. caspius in Morocco

Trophic behavior

Aedes caspius is an anthropophilic species preferably known to bite during the day and night, with a peak of activity at dusk. It usually feeds aggressively inside and outside homes (Veronesi et al., 2012).

Medical importance

Most studies dealing with the vector role of this mosquito concern arboviruses and more specifically the Tahyna virus (Pilaski & Mackenstein, 1985), WNV (Orshan et al., 2008; Ergunay et al., 2014), and RVFV (Turell et al., 1996; Tantely et al., 2015). It may also be involved in the transmission of Sindbis (Lundstrom, 1999) and Usutu viruses (Cook et al., 2018).

Aedes detritus

Aedes detritus (Haliday, 1833) is a Palearctic species that occurs throughout the European coast, the Baltic Sea as well as the Atlantic Ocean, and around the Mediterranean basin. It is a common species that is more abundant in southern and dry regions, i.e., in the United Kingdom (Blagrove et al., 2016), Italy (Mancini et al., 2017), Belgium (Boukraa et al., 2015), France (Brengues et al., 2014) and Spain (Ruiz-Arrondo et al., 2019). In addition, it has a dispersed distribution in the inland saline areas of Europe, North Africa, and Southwest Asia.

In North Africa, it was detected in Egypt (Abdel-Hamid et al., 2011), Tunisia (Ben Ayed et al., 2019), Algeria (Metge & Hassaïne, 1998), etc. In Morocco, Ae. detritus is very well represented in coastal areas (Fig. 5), where they are found on a fairly regular strip from Tangier to Tantan (Atlantic coast), and on a less regular strip from Tangier to Saïdia (Mediterranean coast) (Trari, 2017).

Larval habitats

It is a typically halophilic species and the larvae are found almost exclusively in habitats with an exceptionally high salinity content; and are found only occasionally in freshwater (Blagrove et al., 2016). Larvae can be found in semi-permanent ponds in open marshes and drainage channels or stagnant lagoons, with little aquatic vegetation. They are sometimes found with larvae of Ae. caspius, but most often, due to tolerance to extreme salinity, the species occurs alone in its aquatic habitats and does not co-occur with other species (Becker et al., 2020).

Fig. 5. Distribution of Ae. detritus in Morocco

Trophic behavior

Females are aggressive, persistent and easily attack humans, often in large numbers. They can feed during the day but are mainly active at dusk. Aedes detritus is a typical exophilic species that enters buildings only occasionally. Having a large flight capacity, they can travel more than 10 km to fetch their blood meal and thus constitute a significant nuisance at a great distance from emergence areas (Becker et al., 2020).

Medical importance

Aedes detritus is a competent vector for ZIKV transmission, JEV, WNV, and RVFV (Vazeille et al., 2008; Mackenzie-Impoinvil et al., 2015; Tantely et al., 2015; Blagrove et al., 2016; Lumley et al., 2018; Blagrove et al., 2020).

Culex pipiens

In temperate regions, especially in the Mediterranean basin, Cx. pipiens (Linnaeus, 1758) is recognized as one of the most widespread cosmopolitan species (Amraoui et al., 2012a; Brugman et al., 2018). It is also found in temperate regions of Africa, Asia, Australia, Europe, and North and South America. Culex pipiens exists in two morphologically identical forms or biotypes, the pipiens form and the molestus form (Farajollahi et al., 2011). The pipiens form is anautogenous, eurygamous (mates in the open air), and enters diapause during the winter (heterodynamic). The molestus form is autogenous, stenogamous (can mate in confined spaces) and remains active during the winter period (homodynamic). In Morocco, Cx. pipiens is a very common and ubiquitous species (Fig. 6) (Amraoui et al., 2012b; Bkhache et al., 2016; Aboulfadl et al., 2020).

Larval habitats

Larvae of Cx. pipiens can be found in temporary or semi-permanent water sources, ponds with vegetation, rice fields, along rivers, in flood-prone areas, in puddles and ruts, sometimes even in water-filled tree holes (Müller et al., 2012; Liu et al., 2019; Becker et al., 2020). They are also frequently present in artificial water bodies, such as flooded cellars, construction sites, road drains and pits, water barrels, metal tanks, ornamental ponds, and any type of container (Becker et al., 2020). They can thrive in clear water but also in water polluted by organic matter (wastewater), and can even tolerate a small amount of salinity (Kengne et al., 2019; Marini et al., 2020).

Fig. 6. Distribution of Cx. pipiens in Morocco

Trophic behavior

Females bite all warm-blooded vertebrates at night and eat their meals mostly indoors. Culex pipiens mosquitoes bite humans, but can also bite mammals (horses) and birds (Becker et al., 2020). The pipiens form feeds preferably on birds while the molestus form mainly on mammals (Amraoui et al., 2012b; Shahhosseini et al., 2018).

Medical importance

Culex pipiens is a competent vector of several pathogens infecting animals and humans, including WNV (Meegan et al., 1980; Calzolari et al., 2010; Mavridis et al., 2018). In 2012, several populations of Cx. pipiens from different distinct habitats (urban and suburban) in Morocco and other countries in the Maghreb region were experimentally infected with WNV and RVFV (Amraoui et al., 2012a). About 69.2% of mosquitoes developed a disseminated Infection of RVFV and of these, 77.8% transmitted the virus through saliva. All mosquitoes developed a highly disseminated infection with and excreted infectious saliva.

Conclusion

Currently, mosquito-borne pathogens pose one of the greatest public health challenges. Knowledge of mosquitoes of Morocco, their geographical distribution, bioecology, as well as their involvement in the transmission of diseases is essential for a good understanding of the current risk and preparing for future threats. The epidemiology of arboviruses has undergone significant changes throughout the world over the past thirty years, in connection with the intercontinental dissemination of the main vector species Ae. albopictus and Ae. aegypti, favored by human activities and current climatic changes. Aedes albopictus, recently found in Algeria and in Morocco, is a mosquito that spreads rapidly and the epidemiological consequences of its invasion and establishment are disastrous and well known throughout the world. Since the current knowledge of the Moroccan distribution of these two vectors remains incomplete and scattered, monitoring of their establishment is highly recommended. The recent reporting of Ae. albopictus in Morocco and the increase in the number of international travelers to the country could be one of the determining factors in the establishment of an autochthonous transmission cycle of arboviruses.

Author's Contributions

Outammassine Abdelkrim: Conceptualizing, data curation, data analyzing, writing and reviewing the manuscript. Daoudi Mohamed: writing and reviewing the manuscript. Loqman Souad: supervision, writing, review and editing. Zouhair Said: supervision, conceptualization, writing - review and editing, project administration, resources.

Author's Information

Funding

This review did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Data Availability Statement

All data supporting the findings of this study are available within the paper or supplementary files.

Ethics Approval

This review does not contain any studies with human participants performed by any of the authors.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

Generative AI statement

The authors declare that no Gen AI was used in the creation of this manuscript.

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